What does Timothy Leary Know? History of Adult and Community Education in the United States during the 1960’s

 

History of Adult and Community Education

Rachael D. Smith

Ball State University

EDAC 631 Adult and Community Education

Professor, Dr. Bo Chang

9/20/2020

 

What does Timothy Leary Know?

History of Adult and Community Education in the United States during the 1960’s

 

Name	Commented On
Rachael D. Smith	LaTanya Robinson  Luther Prater

 

Introduction

“The agenda before the American people is great. The problems are complex. I believe that an America that understands the importance of "lifelong learning" will be able to deal with those problems more wisely and more vigorously.” – Senator John F. Kennedy

 Before John F. Kennedy became the 35^th President of the United States, he was the Senator from Massachusetts.  In a letter to the Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. in 1960, John F. Kennedy expressed the importance of “lifelong learning” and the work of the association.  This set the stage for adult education in the United States during the 1960’s and his commitment to that education (John F. Kennedy, 1960).    Unfortunately, John F. Kennedy would not live to see the implications of his work and enthusiasm for adult education.  He was assassinated November 22, 1963 in Dallas, TX (Freidel & Sidey, 2006). 

The 1960s in the United States was an unusual time in American history.  As the Baby Boomers grew into young adults, they distanced themselves from the cookie cutter American image of their parents.  Religiously, many also declared themselves “spiritual, but not religious” (Ellwood, 1994).  This generation also gave themselves over to the Civil Rights Movement, Women’s Liberation, Gay Liberation, Anti-war Protests, and some decided to “tune in, turn on, and drop out” (Bove, 2012). 

While some decided to take Leary’s advice and drop out of institutions of higher learning, many more people recognized the change which could be made in the academic environments, as well as the education, good or bad, that was needed to make a better world.  During the 1960’s, the political climate was so intense, many believed they needed to be educated in order to “fight the establishment.”  Many student groups, such as Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and Students for a Democratic Society, sprung out of local universities and the students who wanted to make change.  Student led movements were a big success in the 1960’s, however, it was usually met with the older generation’s dismissive attitude.  This attitude fueled the fire for many students to continue their fight against the establishment and “the man.”  Interestingly, The Port Huron Statement (1962) states, “Social relevance, the accessibility to knowledge, and internal openness—these together make the university a potential base and agency in a movement of social change” (Bloom & Breines (2003), p. 60). 

Institutions of higher learning were not the only adult educational institutions making changes.  The United States government opened new programs and educational opportunities for adults during the 1960’s.  What began as a mission of John F. Kennedy, ended with President Lyndon B. Johnson taking the reigns and instituting new adult educational opportunities in his “Great Society.”

Highlights

While it was the institutions of higher learning which gave many involved in the counterculture a place to call home.  Most Americans of the time were not students of higher educational institutions.  According to the 1960 Census, 3.6 million people attended universities across the country (US Census Bureau, 1999).  Where did that leave the other 176.3 members of the U.S. population? (US Census Bureau, 2008).  Many of these people were faced with economic recessions, high unemployment, and the threat of automation taking over human jobs in the Atomic Age.  This fear led to leaders across the country to being the process of figuring out how to calm those fears, yet still prepare Americans for the technological age in which they were about to come upon.  The only reasonable response was adult education and training.  They realized the need to prepare the American people for the technological age and they needed the government to invest in the programs and the people.  While the social issues of the 1960’s motivated a great deal of change, the economic issues developing within the country are what moved lawmakers to make the greatest changes in adult education.

Influential Factors

With the election of John F. Kennedy, the United States simultaneously would usher in a tumultuous time in American history.  Regardless, all avenues led to education and how it would play a role in the new social construction of the United States.  John F. Kennedy’s address to the Adult Education Association in 1960 was just the beginning.  In the brief period of his presidency, John F. Kennedy founded the Peace Corps, signed into law the Manpower Development and Training Act (1962), and the Vocational Education Act (1963). 

While the Peace Corps was founded as a volunteer organization of the United States, an argument can be made for the educational benefits.  Many educational institutions offer study abroad opportunities, but the Peace Corps allows adults to live, work, and learn about other cultures while also serving their country (Peace Corps, n.d.). 

The Manpower Development and Training Act (1962) permitted American citizens to be trained and reeducated to learn new skills in order to be employable in the new technical world.  According to Kreman (1974), 11% of those unemployed were without work for 27 weeks or more.  This was detrimental to many Americans who had lived through the depression and came through it as the greatest economic country in the world.  The thought of returning to that state of despair from 1929 until the United States involvement in World War II, had many Americans nervous and wanting some type of safeguard in place.  The Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 was one piece of legislation which would ease the minds of many Americans. 

President Kennedy announced the Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA) of 1962 was a program designed to allow for 52 weeks of training in a new skill or technology, as well as an allowance given to the heads of household, so they may still be able to provide for their families while being educated/trained.   Finally, the MDTA offered support to those participating in the program through the guidance of the United States Employment Service so they were able to find employment opportunities which suited their interests and newfound skills (Peters & Woolley, n.d.).

In 1963, President Kennedy introduced the Vocational Education Act which according to the Act,

It is the purpose of this part to authorize Federal grants to States to assist them to maintain, extend, and improve existing programs of vocational education, to develop new programs of vocational education, and to provide part-time employment for youths who need the earnings from such employment to continue their vocational training on a full-time basis, so that persons of all ages in all communities of the State—those in high school, those who have completed or discontinued their formal education and are preparing to enter the labor market, those who have already entered the labor market but need to upgrade their skills or learn new ones, and those with special educational handicaps—will have ready access to vocational training or retraining which is of high quality, which is realistic in the light of actual or anticipated opportunities for gainful employment, and which is suited to their needs, interests, and ability to benefit from such training. (Vocational Education Act, Section 1)

This act gave more power to the state and local governments to oversee the project, as well as more government funds to operate vocational educational training.  In fact, according to the Act, $225 million were allocated to expand vocational training and that included research and experimentation, where it was not an option before (Vocational Education Act, Section 2). 

However, it would be the educational contributions of Lyndon B. Johnson which would change adult education in the United States during the 1960’s.  Lyndon B. Johnson was elected Vice-President of the United States with President John F. Kennedy.  When Kennedy was assassinated in November of 1963, Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the 36^th President of the United States.  While Johnson’s legacy is marred by his handling of the Vietnam War, his determination to uphold the educational ideas of President Kennedy and implement his own educational improvements must be appreciated.   

During the tenure of President Johnson, the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 and the Adult Education Act of 1966, which created Job Corps and federal work study programs, was legislation passed.  According to the U.S. Department of Education (2013), Johnson capitalized on the nation’s grief of losing a most beloved leader and their concern over Johnson’s sudden catapult into the presidency, to push legislation through in the United States Congress.  It worked.  Nine months after Johnson took office, he was signing the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964.

The Economic Employment Act focused on those 18 years and older, who did not have the basic literacy, writing, or mathematical skills for employment in the United States.  The program focused on those who had at least a fifth-grade education and allocated funds for these programs to be housed in local communities.  The states would be responsible for the distribution of funds, based on Census data and the Economic Employment Act also inserted provisions from the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to help with issues desegregating learning centers and adult classrooms (U.S. Dept. of Education, 2013).

The Adult Education Act of 1966 was one of Johnson’s greatest achievements.  Not only did he continue in honoring Kennedy’s legacy, but he managed to get this piece of legislation passed when lawmakers were worried more about the crisis in Vietnam, than adult educational opportunities.   The Adult Education Act focused on adult basic education and teacher training for those students.  Federal money was still given to the states; however, this time adult basic education would be housed in the U.S. Department of Education and not in the previous Office of Economic Opportunity (U.S. Dept. of Education, 2013).

Implications

The implications of these pieces of legislation were profound during the 1960’s and still can be felt today.  Based on the United States Census data, in 1960, 1,679,000 graduated high school.  Of those students, 755,550 went on to a college or university.  By 1970, 2,757,000 people graduated high school, including those who obtained a GED, and of those students 1,433,640 went on to a college or university (US Census Bureau, 1999).  Giving people access to educational opportunities they did not previously have, opened doors to a more educated America. 

Not only did the country as a whole benefit, under-served and underprivileged groups also benefited.  While there is still much more work to be done when it comes to the equality issue within the United States, according to the Census data, in 1960 5.1 million women were enrolled in high school and by 1970, 7.3 million women were enrolled.  To expound further, in 1960 40% of the Black population completed high school, whereas by 1970, that number increased to 62%.  When it comes to the Hispanic population, there was no data for 1960, however in 1970, 70% of the Hispanic population had completed high school in the United States.  When looking at higher adult education, the Census data contends in 1965, 5.9 million students were enrolled in colleges or universities.  Just five years later in 1970, college enrollment rose to 8.5 million students.  The census data also states in 1960, 477,000 college degrees were conferred, but by 1970 that number rose significantly to 1.2 million degrees conferred (US Census Bureau, 1999). 

Education was on the rise during the 1960’s and the trend continues to move upward in the 21^st century.  Because American leaders, like President John F. Kennedy and President Lyndon B. Johnson had grand ideas for all American people, the significance of these legislative acts can still be felt today.  President Kennedy and President Johnson made adult education a priority during their time in the Oval Office.  However, it was not just for the benefit of White Americans, but for the benefit of Black, Hispanic, and female Americans.  Most people would argue, “Knowledge is power” and that is exactly what these former American presidents gave the American people, power.  It was not just the power to know information, but also economic power, social power, legal power, and the power to make informed electoral decisions.  With a more informed electorate, all Americans benefit.  No offense to Timothy Leary, but Americans have been better off not dropping out. But to his credit, they have changed the world around them by tuning in to the issues and turning on the knowledge to make change. 

 Table 1.  Summary of the History of Adult/Community Education

Areas	Summary
Social Background	1960’s Counterculture, Timothy Leary, The Port Huron Statement, American universities as a home for the movements of the 1960’s
Highlights	Economic fears lead to more interest in adult education
Influential Factors	President John F. Kennedy, President Lyndon B. Johnson, Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962, Vocational Education Act of 1963, Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, Adult Education Act of 1966
Implications	Rise in adult education, Higher numbers of educated minority groups, Knowledge is power

 

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